Art, Ha! What is it Good For?

ART, HA! WHAT IS IT GOOD FOR?

 SUGGESTIONS FOR VISUAL CULTURE

by

James Andrew Dycus

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ART IN TEACHING

AT THE

MEMPHIS COLLEGE OF ART

May 2009

Ó 2009 James Andrew Dycus.  All Rights Reserved

The author hereby grants to the Memphis College of Art permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this action research document and relevant documentation in whole or part.

Signature of Author:                                                                                                              

                                                                                                            Graduate Program

                                                                                                            May 5, 2009

Certified By:                                                                                                                          

                                                                                                            Cathy Wilson, Ed.D.

Director of Art Education Programs

Accepted By:                                                                                                                         

Ken Strickland

Vice President, Academic Affairs

Running head:  ART, HA! WHAT IS IT GOOD FOR?

Art, Ha! What Is It Good For? Suggestions for Visual Culture

Andrew Dycus

Memphis College of Art

May 5, 2009

Acknowledgements

            I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Gregg Coats, Theater and Visual Arts Professional Development Coordinator of the Memphis City Schools who gave me a chance to begin my career in art education and has provided me enormous support along the way thus far: in professional development, guidance, and materials and supplies for my students to use in class. I am indebted to numerous teachers and staff at my school of placement, Westside Elementary, for their guidance, support, advice, and good natures. I owe special thanks to the third grade and fourth grade teachers at Westside Elementary for your help with this study. Thank you for administering the surveys to your students and being such gracious colleagues. You have helped make my transition into teaching as smooth as I could have hoped. In particular, I owe a special thanks to Ms. Amy Stapp, Westside Elementary's computer tech, spiritual guide, leader-extraordinaire, and expert on everything, and to my official mentor, Ms. Gwendolyn Harris, who has always been there when I need her. Should either of you decide to retire and sell chickens, God save us all! You are the glue that holds us together.

            A very special thank you goes out to my teacher, mentor, and mother-in-residence at the Memphis College of Art, Dr. Cathy Wilson. Thank you for everything you do! You are a very special person. From the moment I contacted you about the art education program at MCA, I knew it was the place for me. Thank you to all of my teachers along the way. Every one of you has caused me to think more critically and creatively about what I do.

            I will be forever indebted to my wife, Jessica Dycus, for her kind words and gentle persuasion. Sweetheart, you are always right! Thank you for your support and friendship. You have helped me to strive to be more than I intended, and believe in myself when doubt crept in. Thank you for not settling. Thank you for settling. Your friendship and support will always be cherished, and your fearlessness to try new things always inspiring.

Abstract

Contemporary positions on the value of art instruction were located and described, as were best teaching practices, and specific strategies for art education. Current literature on visual culture was described, and a rationale for change in art education toward visual culture was presented. Definitions of visual culture were reviewed, suggested items for study under visual culture catalogued, and specific strategies for use in visual culture art education listed. Additional topics addressed through the literature review included the role of aesthetics in art education and criticisms of visual culture. Case studies utilizing visual culture approaches with three third grade classes and three fourth grade classes were described. Results of the study were presented and interpreted.

Table of Contents

Introduction	7
Area of Focus	7
Research Questions	7
Review of Related Literature	8
Negotiations Undertaken	36
Timeline	36
Data Collection	38
Data Sources	38
Action Plan	39
Data Analysis and Interpretation	40
Final Thoughts	63
References	64
Appendix A: Research Proposal	72
Appendix B: Letter of Research Approval	77
Appendix C: Illusion of Depth, Fine Art Survey Data	78
Appendix D: Illusion of Depth, Visual Culture Survey Data	79
Appendix E: Cereal Box Survey Data	80
Appendix F: Illusion of Depth Rubric Data	81
Appendix G: Illusion of Depth Survey Data Comparison	82
Appendix H: Cereal Box Design Rubric	83
Appendix I: Questions for Critical Inquiry	84
Appendix J:  Questions for Critical Inquiry (303)	85

Introduction

The following research began in response to questions over the value and appropriateness of visual culture art education to the elementary art classroom. The idea of visual culture art education was discovered while searching through current art education journals for suggested teaching strategies. At first glance, it seemed an intuitive way of connecting art concepts to students' previous learning and of making learning experiences relevant and exciting.

The initial connection to the idea of visual culture prompted further exploration of the topic. Teaching using popular culture artifacts to introduce elements of art and principles of design seemed an easy enough task. However, after initial research, it was determined that proponents of visual culture art education not only suggested certain strategies for teaching, but were actually seeking an overhaul of art education. The reasoning for such a change had to be explored, as did the proposed practical changes. Arguments for the change and against the change needed to be identified. The utility and appropriateness of using visual culture in the elementary art classroom required assessment for effective implementation.

Area of Focus Statement

            The purpose of this study is to describe the effects and utility of using visual culture strategies in the elementary art classroom.

Research Questions

1. Which visual culture strategies are most effective for elementary students?
2. Are visual cultural strategies more meaningful and engaging to students than traditional art education strategies?
3. Does prior knowledge of visual culture artifacts presented in class affect student performance?

Literature Review

While taking a class on teaching strategies, several books were suggested for their expertise on best teaching practices and information on the manner in which students learn best. These texts were reviewed alongside current literature in art education magazines surrounding strategies for art education. An initial survey of these art education magazines identified visual culture as an interesting strategy due to its relevance to the ideas promoted by Jensen (1997, 2001) and Stronge (2002).

Stronge (2002) suggested that effective teachers "enable students to relate learning to real-life situations using hands-on learning that engages higher mental processes, problem-solving techniques, analytical thinking skills, and creativity" (p. 44). Stronge (2002) further proposed effective teachers "relate subject matter with students in a way that they will come to own it and understand it deeply" (p. 45). He stated the "emphasis should be on meaning," with effective teachers providing opportunities that "encourage students to respond to questions and activities that require them to discover and assimilate their own understanding" (Stronge, 2002, p. 47). Jensen (1997) suggested using strategies to make learning experiences relevant and meaningful by providing opportunities for students to relate concepts to their lives (p. 13). Jensen (1997) promoted the idea that teachers make students aware of how learning affects them (p. 43) and provide concrete experiences of concepts (p. 57). Stronge (2002) suggested effective teachers provide "connections to students' experiences" (p. 7).

The writings describing best teaching practices by Stronge (2002) and Jensen (1997) called for the very type of instructional opportunities that visual culture strategies provided. The literature in current art education journals described visual culture strategies that were an intuitive way of providing real-world learning opportunities, connecting concepts to previous knowledge, relating instruction to students' lives, creating opportunities for using higher order thinking skills, and making students aware of how learning affects them. A review of current literature identified the value of, and rationale for, implementing visual culture art education.

Formalism

Numerous visual culture proponents called for a shift in art education, suggesting that more emphasis be put on context and content than on the formal qualities of art (Carter, 2008; Gude, 2007; Tavin, Kushins, & Elniski, 2007). Gude (2007), for instance, suggested studying the context of art through identifying the role of the artist. She rated the formalist aesthetics of art as a secondary concern and described the "decision of what to include in a basic art education curriculum [as] profoundly historical" (Gude, 2007, p.9). The author suggested that "artists and educators who are responsive to the needs of their current students must consider contemporary as well as traditional artistic and critical practice and ask what students need to know to successfully make and understand art and culture today" (Gude, 2007, p. 9). Likewise, Carter (2008) called for "the historical, social, and cultural context and content of an image/artifact [to]...have primacy over form or formal qualities" (p. 92). He described art as being "not just about technique [but]...about the forming of content" (p. 94). Freedman (2003a) observed, "Art is not just about form, it is about the form of ideas" (p. 41). Boughton (2004) proposed the arts are to be valued for the "pursuit of ideas that are relevant to [students'] lives and to their culture," not for media skills or content knowledge, which should be the means to the end, not the end, itself (p. 268).

These criticisms of formalist art education called for change. Steers (2007) described the nature of art education as "being too far removed from experience in ordinary life; too much merely a school activity" (p. 145). He described a challenge of restructuring art education in light of the "excess of competing demands...given the reality of limited resources and time available in schools" (Steers, 2007, p. 151). Jensen (2001) called for "content to be cut in half [and for]...less trivia and more in depth learning about things that matter most in our world" (p. 10). The author argued, "student interests should drive the class, not a cultural literacy agenda" (Jensen, 2001, p. 67). Darts (2006) highlighted deficits of formalism as "emphasizing technique over critique, and mastery of mediums over an understanding of meanings" (p. 10).

Visual culture advocates proposed addressing flaws in the formalist approach to art education. Herrmann (2005) suggested more meaningful art education that would "provide opportunities for investigation and research that can result in artmaking rather than focusing primarily on technical skill acquisition" (p. 45). Freedman (2003a) proposed, "Teaching visual culture involves a transformation of curriculum content, shifts in methods of teaching, and a reconsideration of the assignment and assessment of student work, including a reexamination of the purposes and processes of student artistic production" (p. 38).

Postmodernism Rally Cry

Theorists proposed visual culture art education in part, in response to the changes in art (Wilson, 2003). Smith (2003a) proposed the emergence of postmodernist art as a reconstitution of the institution of art. According to Smith (2003a), "the notion of aesthetic response in the presence of an art object was being undermined" by postmodern artworks and movements (p.4). Smith (2003a) argued, as art was no longer mainly concerned with formalism, art education should move away from a historical notion, as well. In conceptual art and performance art "the idea was the object" (Smith, 2003a). Wilson (2003) emphasized that contemporary art from Duchamp on, is conceptual, not just visual in nature (p. 217). Mayer (2008) charged, "Formalist aesthetics that entails analyzing elements and principles inhibits rather than opens meaning making...and just doesn't suit contemporary art" (p. 79). Visual culture advocates sought to address the move in focus from formalism to conceptualism, as seen in the art world, and make the experiences of art students more relevant to today's art practices. (Gude, 2004; Wilson, 2003). Tavin, Kushins, and Eniski (2007) described the irrelevance of formalist criticism and production to today's students, and suggested the study of content and context through visual culture studies.

Gude (2004) questioned the status of the elements and principles of art as a "major curriculum goal" in art education (p. 6). She promoted a new set of postmodern principles for curriculum "based on contemporary art" (Gude, 2004, p. 12). These eight postmodern principles were "hybrids of visual form and conceptual art-making" (Gude, 2004, p. 8). Stewart (2003) asserted that "postmodernism proposes conflicts often be seen as varying points of view" and cited visual culture's method of critical inquiry as central to postmodern principles (p. 38). Wilson (2003) called for a shift in art education in which:

The boundaries of our field should be vastly more expansive than at present. Our expansion should include both the emerging edge of contemporary art and theories, ideas, and ideologies associated with these new artworks. Yes, when the basic character of art changes, and it has changed and will continue to change, then art education should also change (p. 227).

Definitions

            Advocates and critics have defined visual culture in several ways. Stankiewicz wrote, "Visual culture has not been definitively defined. Rather, a number of overlapping definitions exist, each pointing out certain features over others. Like art, visual culture is an open concept with new candidates advancing almost daily" (p. 6). 

Heise (2004) defined visual culture as "the images and objects we encounter in our daily lives" (p. 41). Tavin (2005a) characterized visual culture as "both a field of study and an inclusive register of images and objects well beyond the popular" (p. 7). Duncum (2001) defined visual culture as "a field of study... composed of two closely related elements: a focus on ways of seeing, often referred to as 'visuality', and an expanded range of artifacts that lie beyond the art institution" (p. 104).

 Freedman (2003a) suggested that "visual culture can be understood as the objects and processes, including those created and used by students, that particularly function through visualized form to affect our lives" (p. 39). Freedman further described visual culture as "all things that we particularly interact with visually" (K. Freedman, personal communication, March, 28, 2009). Paraphrasing Mirzoeff (1993, 2005), Sweeny (2004) defined visual culture "as a cultural tendency towards employing visual information as the privileged mode of representation and comprehension" (p. 294). Efland (2004), a critic of visual culture, defined the attributes of visual culture as:

A rejection of formalist aesthetics; a shift from the interpretation and judgment of artworks to questions about the social systems in which they are constrained; a resistance to the idea of artistic value, or to the possibility of high culture; an emphasis on interdisciplinary studies;...the view that all things are political and hence the function of visual culture and its study is a form of political education (p. 240).

Suggested Objects for Study

Many advocates described an expansion of objects under visual culture art education, including artifacts from popular culture. In characterizing visual culture studies, Duncum (2003b) described the objects of study as "two-dimensional images, overtly symbolic, [and] deliberately communicative" (p. 22, Figure 1.). Duncum (2003a) included "[family photography, consumer goods, tourist souvenirs, teenagers' bedrooms], theme parks, television drama and news broadcasts, magazine advertisements, community celebrations, fast food restaurants, and computer games" in a description of "rich sites of contemporary visual culture" (p. 25). Duncum (2004) further expanded the list of sites of visual culture to include "magazines, shopping malls, theme parks, product packaging, advertising in all its forms... television, the Internet, zines, video games or simulation rides... department stores, tourist sites and food outlets, [and] music videos" (p. 252- 262).

A pioneer of visual culture art education, Lanier (1969) called for the study of "motion pictures, television, photography in popular magazines, graphic design in advertising and packaging, clothing design, and the interior design of public places" (p. 315). Smith (2003a) offered, "Visual culture in its broadest sense comprises the human made or human designed environment. It includes clothing, automobiles, shopping malls, advertisements, television, motions pictures, computer graphics, and computer games" (p. 3). Taylor and Ballengee-Morris (2003) proposed "visual culture deals with images from mass media such as television, movies, music videos, computer technology, advertisements, magazines, and newspapers" (p. 21). Marshall (2004) suggested using pictures from science and natural history. Several authors noted

student artwork as objects of visual culture and described the value of including them in study (Crum, 2007; Efland, 2004; Freedman, 2009b; Staikidis & Higgins, 2006; Ulbricht, 2005; Wilson, 2005).

Other visual culture theorists advocated expanding visual culture artifacts to include material culture (Burkhart, 2006; Feldhusen, 2008; Marschalek, 2005; Ulbricht, 2007) Marschalek (2005) proposed studying mass-produced objects. Burkhart (2006) suggested broadening visual culture to include "material culture: all past and present human-made and human altered forms" (p. 33). Others included the study of object design in their descriptions of visual culture (Couts & Rusling, 2002; Jeffers, 2004; Vande Zande, 2007a, 2007b).

While the discussion of visual culture objects frequently designated those popular culture items that were to be included, many visual culture proponents failed to mention the fine arts in their discussions. A few of the authors addressed the inclusion of the fine arts explicitly. They emphasized the importance of including fine art images and paying attention the quality of images used in art education. Efland (2004) called for the inclusion of a variety of objects from high art, [students' art], and popular culture" (p. 244). The author further contended that art education look to the everyday, but also look beyond to fine art (Efland, 2005). Richardson (2004) supported the use of visual culture images in the classroom, but maintained that images be of "relative quality" (p. 17). Moore (2004) called for a compromise between "open-ended, nomadic attention to all interesting images [and the] traditional narrow focus on art treasures and iconic objects of aesthetic value" (p. 20).

Rationale for Visual Culture

            Proponents suggested moving toward a visual culture approach in art education for varied reasons. Numerous advocates supported the idea of visual culture art education based on the increasing role of the visual in culture. They proposed that visual culture art education would raise students' awareness of the impact of visual culture (Chalmers, 2005; Desai & Chalmers, 2007; Duncum, 2004; Freedman, 2003a, 2009b; Lackey, 2005; Marshall, 2004; McFee, 1961; Smith, 2003a; Smith-Shank, 2003; Stewart, 2003; Tavin & Anderson, 2003; Ulbricht, 2005, 2007). Marshall (2004) described the "primary purposes of an art education in visual culture [as] the achievement of visual literacy and an understanding of the impact of all images, not just art" (p. 137). McFee (1961) argued that, "considering the impact of television, motion pictures, and all other visual means of learning about culture it seems important for children to realize that all this learning is going on, so that they can learn to be discriminating about what they accept" (p. 23). Duncum (2004) cited "observations about changing patterns of both work and leisure [as] the impetus for the study of visual culture" (p. 256). Duncum (2007) further argued that the "realities of contemporary life...necessitate curriculum change in art education" (p. 52). Duncum (2003b) called for visual culture art education that:

...Ground[s] art education in the opportunity for students to inquire critically into their own cultural experience in such a way that they come to know not only something of the contemporary pressures and processes acting upon them but also to discover the chance to have their own voice (p. 24).

Desai and Chalmers (2007) suggested the prevalence of politically motivated imagery necessitates that we "teach our students the tools to read images...critically" (p. 9). Heise (2004) suggested the purpose of art education is to "educate [students] to become critical consumers and informed citizenry" (p. 42). Lackey (2005) asserted visual culture studies help address the "pedagogical influences" of visual culture sites through "acknowledging and examining them" (p. 326). Ulbricht (2007) advocated utilizing visual culture art education with students to "inform them of [visual culture's] influence on their perceptions" (p. 59). Ulbricht (2005) promoted using visual culture studies in the classroom to "prepare students to understand its objectives, motivations, and impacts. Teachers should help students relate the various forms of visual culture to one another, and pose questions for students about their makers, purposes, and functions" (p. 17). Stewart (2003) proposed that

Gaining knowledge and the ability to perceive the hidden messages embedded in various media of communication is what deconstruction is all about. If you know the messenger you are better able to perceive the motive of the communication and decipher its real or embedded message. We are sent messages everyday by advertisers to buy their products, but the subtler messages are mostly subconsciously perceived. We accept and act on impulse. "Drink this and you will be a better athlete." "Wear this and you will be cool." "Buy this car and you will have luck with the opposite sex" (p. 39).

Smith (2003a) wrote, "Advocates of visual culture study point out that young people are immersed in media as never before in history and that their lives are spent in a mostly human-designed environment" (p. 3). Freedman (2003a) suggested visual culture should be taught in order to "broaden [art education] to come to grips with...the wide ranging changes in the visual world...and provide leadership to develop insights into their meanings" (p. 38). Tavin and Anderson (2003) advocated the use of visual culture studies in response to the prevalence of visual imagery, the influence it has on students, and the need to educate students of its influence and its source, citing the fact that "popular culture is a significant site of learning that provides substantial experiences for children and youth" (p. 21). Smith-Shank (2003) argued that not all students will be artists, but "they should be able to look at a slice of visual culture and interpret it critically, not devour it whole" (p. 33).

Numerous advocates cited the democratic nature of visual culture: its more usable life skills and relevant curriculum as compared to formalist art education, and its openness to everyone to participate and gain value from study (Darts, 2006; Duncum, 2007; Freedman, 2003a; Freedman, 2009b; Heise, 2004; Hicks, 2004; Lanier, 1969; Moore, 2004; Tavin, 2005a; Tavin & Hausman, 2004). Moore (2004) wrote, "The real aims of these programs is to cultivate certain life skills that every student-potential artist or not-can use effectively in growing intellectually, politically, socially, and aesthetically" (p. 19). Darts (2006) argued that art education should adopt a more useful curriculum that is connected to the aims of public education in order to survive as a discipline, suggesting that aesthetic formalism is the reason art is expendable (p. 11). Hicks (2004) posited "art education has an obligation to consider the ways in which art, and more broadly, visual or material culture, affect and are affected by the broader social world in which it exists" (p. 286-287). She called for changing the "rules" of the "game" of art education in order to enable more to "play" and to provide a more valuable outcome for playing the game (p. 295). Likewise, Freedman (2003a) advocated visual culture art education based on its capacity to create more meaningful instruction for a larger number of students. 

Heise (2004) suggested that, "a rationale for integrating visual culture in the art education curriculum... includes the need to provide students with authentic learning experiences that contribute to the skills, attitudes, and dispositions necessary for success in a political and social democracy" (p. 46). Tavin (2005a) identified Lanier's call in 1957 for "moving beyond the narrow confines of 'high art' and art production, towards critical thinking and understanding" (p. 7). Lanier (1969) advocated restructuring art education to present "new curricula that is relevant and meaningful to pupils" (p. 314). Tavin and Hausman (2004) argued that visual culture studies make sense in the age of globalization because of the relevance to students' everyday lives, and potential for the inspiration of "critical citizenship" (p. 49). Freedman (2009a) emphasized the importance of providing all students with opportunities to develop critical thinking skills, instead of simply providing some with technical skills.

Several authors proposed that students, who were interested in doing so, would be able to focus on technical skill development under the framework of visual culture (Jensen, 2001; Freedman, 2003a; Freedman, 2009a). These authors proposed that this not be the focus for every student, however, and cited that, since beginning classes are often mandatory, they should be made relevant to all students. Freedman (2009a) advocated assignments such as making artistic statements and visual narratives in introductory art classes, saving a focus on technical skills for those later, elective art classes. The author also suggested that elementary students need media experiences and technical instruction, as well as an introduction to visual culture strategies (K. Freedman, Personal Communication, March 28, 2009).

Scope of Curriculum Change

Proponents and critics alike differed on the scope of curricular change suggested by the visual culture movement in art education. Sweeny (2006) proposed "visual culture is becoming a common term within the field of art education. While the term is increasingly familiar, the parameters of practices informed by and responding to visual culture are far from agreed upon" (p. 294). Wilson (2003) proposed four directions for contemporary art education:

1) Ignore emerging contemporary art; 2) add a few aspects of contemporary art and visual culture; 3) de-structure curricula so that teachers and students pick material from contemporary art and popular visual culture, interpreting visual culture artifacts and contemporary art and creating art as an extension of the interpretation ideas; or 4) [in correlation with either strategy two or three, teachers could] shift the locus of pedagogy from the formal art classroom to a space between the school and realms of contemporary art and popular visual culture [and,]....encourage students to play inter-textually between conventional content of their art classes and the things that interest them from popular culture (p. 225).

Several authors proposed the shift toward visual culture art education should be incremental and gradual (Freedman, 2003a; Freedman, 2009; Taylor & Ballengee-Morris, 2003; Villeneuve, 2003). Freedman (2003a) suggested that it could be implemented "with small steps" (p. 38). Villeneuve (2003) argued that, "incorporating visual culture does not require a complete overhaul of the curriculum. It can be incremental" (p. 5). Taylor and Ballengee-Morris (2003) proposed, "a new paradigm of visual culture art education can be incorporated [through]...comfortable transition steps that have personal and societal meanings" (p. 23).

Several proponents advanced visual culture as an expansion of current art education practice. Carter (2008) described broadening the "instructional images beyond that of fine art, to include the category of images referred to as visual culture" (p. 87). Stankiewicz (2004) suggested the broadening of the range of objects and artifacts for study as the most "salient characteristic of visual culture art education...for many art educators" (p. 6). Richardson (2004) described "using easily understood, familiar illustrations as a means of revealing more complex structures in the fine arts" (p. 15). Silvers (2004) agreed with the idea of expanding the objects of study, but not "the replacement of the appreciative and interpretive stances that are conventional in teaching about art" (p. 22).

Numerous proponents described integrating visual culture studies within the current framework for art education. Moore (2004) called for visual culture to "compliment rather than displace traditional instruction" (p. 21). Darts (2006) suggested the importance of both teaching the "foundational skills of artistic production...and focusing on the production of meaning within the art classroom" (p. 10). Tavin, Kushins, and Eniski (2007) pointed out "calls to restructure art education to address context and meaning, new technologies, and conceptualization of ideas along with technical development" (p. 14-15). Heise (2004) suggested visual culture expands DBAE to include the practice of "considering art in relation to the context in which it was created," and to include "the images and objects that we encounter in our daily lives" in order to provide students with authentic learning experiences "that bridge the classroom learning with the real world" (p. 41-43). Efland (2004) proposed a visual culture curriculum that includes fine art and popular culture, context and form, and "interpretive criticism practiced within visual culture," along with aesthetic criticism (p. 245-250).

In contrast to this position of expansion or integrated techniques, several authors called for complete restructure of art education. Duncum (2004) argued that art educators' "social responsibility to make their students literate in multi-modalities...calls for a re-conceptualization of the focus of art education as visual culture rather than art" (p. 253-254).  Keifer-Boyd, Amburgy, and Knight (2007) proposed, "Teaching visual culture involves more than extending the range of visual artifacts in school curricula. It also entails understanding and using those artifacts in new ways" (p. 19). Kiefer-Boyd, Amburgy, and Knight (2003) advocated the "expansion of the visual study of the object to its cultural basis" (p. 51). Stankiewicz (2004) characterized a visual culture approach "emphasizing contexts, identity, and power, that moves beyond creativity, innate artistic talent, and aesthetic experience" (p. 11). 

Strategies for Application

Numerous proposed lessons and practical strategies for implementation within the classroom were identified through a review of the literature. A small fraction of the reviewed literature suggested using visual culture artifacts within the formalist framework. Richardson (2004) argued for using "popular art as a simple lure to introduce students to real art" (p. 14). Predominately, however, the literature suggested activities based on a reconfigured art education that focused on conceptualism, context, and content. Proponents suggested guidelines for implementing visual culture studies along two avenues: through critical analysis and production. Often the two were intertwined, basing production on the critical analysis of visual culture artifacts. Duncum (2002) stated, "Visual culture sees making and critique as symbiotic" (p. 6).

These critical analysis and production approaches were based on a variety of ideas: social investigation and commentary; contemporary art and big ideas; investigation of contexts and content; frameworks for inquiry; narratives; research and background information; specified production processes; reflection; and student interests.

Freedman (2009b) identified one of the goals of visual culture art education as "[addressing] artists' and educators' growing social concerns and students' demands for change." Numerous activities proposed in the literature involved this idea of social investigation and commentary. Smith-Shank (2003) proposed the possibility of social reform through visual culture. Garoian and Gaudelius (2004) recommended art teachers "balance the visual culture critical eye of corporate products with social resistance visual culture created products" (p. 301). Tavin and Anderson (2003) recounted studying "issues of race and gender stereotyping, historical inaccuracies, and violence in and through Disney films. Students engaged in the critical interpretation of specific Disney characters and produced multi-layered artworks based on those interpretations" (p. 33). Chung (2005) detailed a strategy to critique cigarette advertisements and redesign them with Photoshop to create a "socially meaningful art project" (p. 24). Chung (2009) suggested creating "subvertisements: the deconstruction of ads, slogans, logos, and redesign for social commentary" (p. 38). Kiefer-Boyd, Amburgy, and Knight (2007) described lessons that provided students with opportunities to "reveal, critique, and re-envision privilege and power in visual images" (p. 19). These strategies provided opportunities for students to investigate cultural issues as they related to themselves, the meaning of ideas and images based on contexts, and the production of personal narratives (Kiefer-Boyd, Amburgy, & Knight, 2007). Tavin and Hausman (2004) listed production strategies including "photographic documentation and interpretation of various notions of community; performances highlighting cultural perspectives; video-taped interviews with students, parents, neighbors, and shop-owners; and alternative forms of advertisements that take up issues of globalization and visual culture" (p. 51- 52). Tavin and Hausman (2004) proposed that, "art teachers can begin to unpack the social and cultural roots of globalization, and, with their students, imagine new opportunities" (p. 48). The authors proposed utilizing field trips to "shopping malls, toy stores, and theme restaurants, to explore consumer products, imagery, and the marketing of desire" (Tavin & Hausman, 2004, p. 52). 

Several authors suggested activities involving contemporary art as impetus for exploration of themes and responsive production. Desai and Chalmers (2007) offered a table of resources listing social topics and artists who respond to them in works. Gude (2004) declared that, "By structuring art projects to introduce students to relevant contemporary art and thus to postmodern principles- strategies for understanding and making art today- students will gain the skills to participate in and shape contemporary cultural conversations" (p. 13). Darts (2004) advocated providing students with examples of "art activism, conceptual performance, and guerilla art" and engaging students in inquiry with big ideas through "critical forms of creative production" (p. 324-325). Mayer (2008) recommended a strategy "to engage students with current culture...[by using] big ideas found within contemporary art" (p. 79). Hicks (2004) suggested exploring "sites of inquiry involving big ideas, [and] more inclusive and contextualized concepts, such as memory and place" (p. 286).

Freedman (2009b) identified another goal of visual culture art education as, "to gain broad and deep knowledge about making and viewing contexts." Smith (2003a) wrote, "The means of visual culture education, according to the advocates, frequently turns out to be uncovering the covert messages embedded in imagery aimed at the masses" (p. 3). Smith-Shank (2003) proposed that analyzing the context of an image is important to understanding it. Villeneuve (2003) suggested "[associating] appropriate meaning with images,...decoding" a work of art, and receiving background information on the artist to provide context to the work of art (p. 4- 5). Marshall (2004) described the value of using images from science and natural history in a process of "[mining] images and [ascertaining] their many layers of meaning, and [making] connections between the images to realize their interrelationships" (p. 15).

Several authors prescribed specific frameworks and questions for critical inquiry. Barrett (2003) presented a framework for critical inquiry "using the construct of denotations and connotations," in which students from pre-school to college were able to better understand images by taking the time to decode and interpret them (p. 6). Vande Zande (2007) proposed questions for critical inquiry into artifacts, beginning with questions pertaining to the function of the design, and following up with questions for investigating the aesthetics of the design (p. 42). Lackey (2005) supported "using decorating magazine images as foci for discussions and artistic production" and provided questions to use in critical inquiry (p. 335). Freedman (2003b) created a list of "concepts to assist in understanding postmodern visual culture" (p. 95). Taylor (2007) provided a table of questions to use in the critical analysis of music videos, and advised that students "research others' analysis and interpretation of the video,...keep research notes and reflections in journals, sketchbooks, or portfolios,...communally construct concept and/or context webs or maps (Taylor 2000),...[and] refer to these notes when writing artist statements, critiques, and/or self-assessments" (p. 240-242).

Several authors presented ideas for using narratives as a way to explore the viewing and production contexts of visual culture artifacts. Ulbricht (2005) described the act of "[using] visual culture to develop and frame the language of ... personal narratives" (p. 16). Williams (2008) proposed "layered deconstruction of comics through: examination of the story, the creator's intention, characters, and context, and the relationship between design, words, and images" (p. 13). Silverman (2007) suggested studying exemplars, such as postcards, investigating their contexts using "the Critical Response Process" proposed by Lerman and Borstel (2003), creating artworks of their own in response to a "partner's stories" of home, and discussing the products in relation to the "artistic intent and medium in context of creating another's narrative" (p. 18-21). Ulbricht (2007) suggested describing memories of visual culture through narratives that allow students to understand the artifacts in terms of the context of place and time. Tavin and Hausman (2004) suggested "putting a shoe or toy in the middle of the room and asking students to write or draw a story about the object" (p. 51). Tavin and Hausman (2004) also proposed:

Art teachers can engage students in interpreting artwork related to globalization and provide additional background information on the object,...including the cultural conditions under which the object was produced, marketed, and consumed. By making connections to works of art and other themes of globalization, students can then produce their own artwork, through a variety of media that tells a different story about the object and its relation to individual dreams, desires, and life situations (p. 51).

Several authors proposed using background information and exemplars to provide context to students' art making. Feldhusen (2008) proposed a prototypical visual culture assignment involving critical inquiry and production based on this inquiry. The author suggested that students investigate viewing contexts, research artifacts, discuss these ideas in groups, reflect, and base production on this process of inquiry and the relation of the ideas to their own lives (Feldhusen, 2008). Reisberg (2008) described a project in which the teacher used books and artists to "provide a conceptual framework" for the art lesson. "Following discussions about what currency represents and different concepts of power and activism, each student [selected] an activist role model from global, local, or personal sources. Students then [made] paper currency featuring their activist" (p. 45-46). Reisberg (2008) claimed that the framework could be used with other projects that involve a political nature, such as a "poster design for a presidential campaign" (p. 46). Jeffers (2004) suggested study of the historical precursors to theme parks and the design process used in creating modern theme parks, and proposed that students could design a theme park of their own, in response.

Several authors proposed utilizing the production processes appropriate to postmodernism, contemporary art, and technological advances. Garoian and Gaudelius (2004) suggested products including "collage, montage, assemblage, installation and performance" (p. 308). Taylor (2007) provided the following product suggestions: "student-led presentations, research papers, World Wide Web page constructions, collage, construction of personal star text as an avatar, and video construction or traditional self-portrait" (p. 242-243). Taylor (2007) also suggested that students "use music videos to provoke conceptual and technical art-making projects," specifying that the "projects must be directly linked or illustrative of critical and reflective inquiry" (p. 242). According to Taylor (2007), "projects must include or demonstrate visually the critical reflective process with which students approach their work" (p. 243).

Duncum (2004) proposed "studying the meaning of pictures and words in picture books to analyze how they relate, ... and studying film segments, storyboarding and making their own films and videos " (p. 260-261). Duncum (2003b) also advised using music video clips in critical inquiry exercises, research exercises stemming from the critical inquiry, and "development of computer hypertexts that linked connections and organized material from research, related images, and their own reflections" (p. 20).

Several visual culture authors commented on the use of reflection in the visual culture frameworks. Duncum (2003a) offered four lesson topics "on issues of direct relevance of students' developing grasp of themselves and their world," providing "suggested activities and guiding questions" that were designed to "[give students] the chance to reflect on and respond to the challenges of living in a culture undergrid by consumerism and saturated by imagery" (p. 25). Boughton (2004) proposed using "digital portfolios and having students reflect" as modes of assessment (p. 268). Taylor and Ballengee-Morris (2003) suggested approaching visual culture artifacts through "identification of key concepts or issues" (p. 23), research and reflection, and production associated with this inquiry (p. 23). Daiello, Hathaway, and Rhoades (2006) offered a strategy in which teachers "offer students the opportunity to create reflective journals wherein responses to [images] can be encountered and explored through writings and images" (p. 318). The authors proposed conducting a group discussion, and urging students to create artworks that stem from this dialogue (Daiello, Hathaway, & Rhodes, 2006, p. 318).  Roberts (2005) suggested that teachers "require active reflection during and after the creation of artworks" (p. 45).

Freedman (2009b) advised using research journals with older students to "identify students' interests and build upon them by pulling in connections to broaden their knowledge." Freedman (2005) suggested that, "in order to make meaning and promote the development of interpretive skills, it is important for students to have opportunities to study visual representations of their topics of interest" (p. 100).  Duncum (2003b) cited the value of visual culture studies being "grounded in student experience" (p. 20). Tavin and Hausman (2004) suggested:

The subjects and themes for classroom study should be expanded to encompass the scope and scale of students' experiences. This can include deeply felt personal experiences, political and social issues, environmental decision-making, and images in mass media, as well as works of art, architecture, and design (p. 48).

Freedman (2009b) proposed one goal of teaching visual culture was "to relate art education to students' past and present interests and experience while preparing them for a postmodern future." The author proposed that, "courses and assignments should start with the development of student ideas and lead to decisions about how best to express those ideas" (Freedman, 2003, p. 41). Freedman (2003a) suggested "using student art as a critical stepping point" where students may learn to analyze context and content (p. 42).

Several authors commented on the value of viewing students' work as visual culture in the classroom. Crum (2007) reported on the utility of including students' sharing of their home art products in class (p. 44). The author pointed out that teachers could learn "students' interests" by investigating art made at home, and use this knowledge to improve instruction (Crum, 2007, p. 44). Wilson (2005) proposed encouraging students to apply the content taught in class to their favored visual culture style or subject matter. Taylor and Ballengee-Morris (2003) suggested having "students bring in videos of music...[so that teachers could] then capture still images for viewing purposes in the classroom" (p. 21). Staikidis and Higgins (2006) described a strategy for use of postmodern concepts in Freedman's (2003b) book in which the students explored themed ideas, the teacher presented information on postmodern artists who dealt with the themes in their work, and the students completed "open-ended projects in which the students [were] asked to bring in visual ideas and/ or materials/ objects that relate to the artist and the concepts discussed" (p. 14). "Both teacher and students therefore [determined] content" (Staikidis & Higgins, 2006, p. 14). 

Criticisms of Visual Culture

Numerous scholars voiced opposition to the visual culture movement in art education. Tavin (2005b) categorized and cited the criticisms of visual culture studies, including the lack of hierarchy of images, the "political character of visual culture, the lack of focus on art production, and its attention to the vernacular rather than aesthetics and fine art" (p. 111). Eisner (2001) criticized visual culture for the loss of art production and its political character (p. 8-9). Smith (2003a) claimed that, "VCAE [Visual Culture Art Education] is inherently talk-oriented- that it is based on largely anti-capitalist foundations and on anti-aesthetic (or anti-artistry) notions" (p. 7). Smith (2005) presented further criticisms including "visual culture's over-expansion of art education content," the proposal to "jettison traditional ideas about art and art education rather than build upon them," visual culture's "relative indifference to aesthetics," its "rejection of the idea of artistic value and ... coolness toward fine art" (p. 287). Smith (2003b) proposed "visual culture studies have very little to do with the power of imagery-emotional, psychological, and spiritual-and a great deal to do with sociology, economics, and social studies" (p. 26). Efland (2005) criticized visual culture for its "excessive breadth" and "the belief that there is no pre-established hierarchy that accords privileged standing to certain objects such as the objects of 'fine art'" (p. 37).

Bauerlein (2004) questioned the visual culture's emphasis on "mass culture" over "high culture", its "political orientation", and its inclusion of "fields for which art educators have little competence" (p. 11).  Silvers (2004) argued that art educators are unqualified to teach visual culture studies and criticized the proposed visual culture inquiry guides as "abstract" (p. 20). Kamhi (2003) similarly argued that art teachers were unqualified to teach visual culture studies, and that "visual literacy should not be confused with art education" (p. 10). Eisner (2001) proposed the problem with visual culture's political analysis was not the lack of qualification on art teacher's part to teach it, for that could be taught to art teachers (p. 8). The author (2001) suggested that the aims of visual culture art education lay contrary to the "interests of art teachers and the motivations that brought them into the field" (Eisner, 2001, p. 8).

Kamhi (2004) further criticized visual culture, claiming visual culture studies "ignore the expressive and depictive qualities of imagery" (p. 25). Kamhi (2004) argued, "Viewers who follow the promptings of VCS [Visual Culture Studies] to ferret out the purported subtexts contained in every image are, in fact, primed to ignore the artist's actual focus and the entirely legitimate values that it may imply" (p. 26). Dorn (2005) wrote, "What some consider most radical about the VCAE approach is its attempt to shift the Art Education field from its traditional emphasis on studio art into a dialog about art as a socially constructed object, devoid of expressive meaning" (p. 47).

Dorn (2005) criticized visual culture as outlined for the "lack of rational educational goals and standards for student achievement" (p. 50). Stankiewicz (2004) argued "visual culture advocates need to frame the importance of visual culture study within the art education standards" (p. 11). Boughton (2004) pointed to problems with assessing visual culture according to traditional means, but provided suggestions for assessment under the visual culture framework.

Aesthetics

            Several scholars enumerated points of view on the role of aesthetics in visual culture art education. Moore (2004) proposed that "by turning aesthetic attention toward everyday objects and familiar settings, the visual culturalists both capture the attention of audiences-especially young audiences-when they are most at home, and they reaffirm the importance of expanded aesthetic regard" (p. 18). Moore (2004) also suggested a potential "danger" in the aesthetic attention to visual culture objects: mistaking the aesthetic of the everyday as "equal" to that of fine art" (p. 18-19). Smith (2003a) claimed:

Some advocates of visual culture studies...feel the field should abandon its old concerns and take on new goals...making art education more like social studies. Art education should cease to center its attention on "art" in the European derived sense...and concentrate on mass imagery, mass culture, [and] the hidden meanings (p. 5).

Smith (2003a) called for the continued use of aesthetics in art education and the continued attention to the hierarchy of the educational value of images (p. 7). Richardson (2004) highlighted the worth of regarding aesthetic "qualitative differences" in art education, criticizing visual cultural theorists for being "altogether too willing to overlook the grandeur that the greatest art aspires to and sometimes attains" (p. 16). The arguments of Richardson (2004) and Smith (2003a) represented a reluctance to embrace the worth of studying popular culture artifacts because of their lower achievement of aesthetic regard in comparison to masterworks of high art. In contrast to these positions, Efland (2004) embraced the study of popular culture artifacts, but lauded the use of aesthetics in art education. Efland (2004) criticized visual culture's rejection of "formalist aesthetics ... [and] its resistance to the idea of artistic value" (p. 240). Efland (2004) argued for the inclusion of aesthetics because it teaches students to discuss intelligently about the artful power of objects (p. 243). The author called for the attention to both the aesthetics and social relevance of artifacts (Efland, 2004, p. 244).

Others advocated the use of aesthetic inquiry along with other critical inquiry (Efland, 2005; Van Camp, 2004; Vande Zande, 2007a). Vande Zande (2007a) prescribed the use of aesthetic inquiry in visual culture strategies, citing the relationship between identity, style, aesthetics, and the agency of choice (p. 41). Van Camp (2004) argued, "Works have properties that should be considered aesthetically and not just as social and historical phenomena" (p. 35). Van Camp (2004) suggested using "synergistic critique methods" to "analyze symbols in a work, the cultural context of its production, emotional expression, representational content, formal properties and overall aesthetic value" (p. 37). Carter (2008) proposed implementing visual culture education that teaches the contexts of image making and consumption, and the role of "the aesthetic experience [as] a catalyst for the consumption of visual culture" (p. 97). 

Duncum (2007) proposed nine reasons for the aesthetic discourse in visual culture art education including the "many uses of aesthetics [involving] the most important aspects of contemporary life" (p. 48). Citing Postrel (2003), Duncum (2007) described of the role of aesthetics in commercial products: "Where the price and quality of goods and services are approximately equal, it is aesthetic styling, packaging, and marketing that make the difference between commercial success and failure" (Duncum, 2007, p. 49).

Tavin (2007a) argued against continued study of aesthetics in visual culture, citing the "formalist notion of pure form removed from sociopolitical content and context," and the hierarchy created by the supposition of aesthetic value (p. 42). Tavin (2007a) proposed using "postmodern language of representation [that] unlike the discourse of aesthetics ... never guarantees its goodness, is always understood as political, ... [and] begins with the basic premise that responding to images is primarily a process of socialization and signification, and always connected to the material conditions of the world" (p. 42-44).

Targeted Age Ranges

The articles were reviewed for their targeted age range in search of the appropriateness and value of these visual culture lessons to elementary art students. Of all of the visual culture articles reviewed, only 13 mentioned using visual culture with elementary students. In Duncum's (2006) book, Visual Culture in the Art Class: Case Studies, the editor specified that only five case studies out of 21 presented, described visual culture art education with elementary age students (p. iii-v). Most of the discussion of age identified through the literature review proposed to the relevance of visual culture strategies to students' interests, identity, and investigation of social issues. The findings of this review were reported on in the following section.

Barrett (2003) described visual culture exercises with pre-school students, kindergarteners, middle school students, and adults, specifying that all ages were able to participate and make meaning from the critical inquiry exercises related to popular visual culture artifacts (p. 6).  Burkhart (2006) described a lesson with sixth grade students in which students studied the design of bicycles: "Students demonstrated a willingness to explore objects pertinent to their lives, showing interest through their responses, designs, and on-task behaviors"  (p. 36-39). Chung and Kirby (2009) proposed work with eighth-grade students in which students were able to decode messages in corporate advertising and logos, and investigate relevant ideas through construction of alternate "subvertisements" (p. 39). Chung (2005) described work with junior high students in which students learned to decode messages in advertising and produce alternate images (p. 20). Couts (2002) described work with seven-year-olds through twelve-year-olds in an after-school program in Glasgow, Scotland, in which students designed a playground to be used in their neighborhood (p. 42). Crum (2007) detailed using fourth grade students' work from home in the art classroom to identify students' interests (p. 43). Darts (2006) described a class with eight-grade students through high school seniors that "[focused] curriculum around the visual cultures of students' everyday lives" (p. 6). Desai and Chalmers (2007) described exploring the idea of social justice with high school students (p. 10). Duncum (2003a) proposed four activities for use with upper elementary through high school students in which students explored their relationship to images and object that related to their interests and broad concepts such as consumerism and family (p. 26). Feldhusen (2008) described a project for grades eight through 12 in which students investigated "the social life of objects" (p. 25).

Gude (2004) described the improved relevance of visual culture work over a formalist framework to students, K-12 (p. 6). Keifer-Boyd, Amburgy, and Knight (2007) described activities for use with middle school and high school students in which students investigated concepts relevant to their identify formation (p. 19). Lu (2008) suggested the value of using new technologies with K-12 students, but pioneered her pilot study of the strategy with adults (p. 48). Marschalek (2005) proposed design study with K-12 students that would enable them to "understand how design is a part of their lives, how it influences their decision making, and how it could become their livelihood" (p. 46). Reisburg (2008) suggested a strategy for use with third grade and up in which classes investigated "interrelated sources of visual culture related to a theme (in this case a range of children's picture books, a dollar bill, and fine art sources)"  (p. 47). Roberts (2005) described strategies for working with high school students involving "active reflection during and after the creation of artworks" in which students created artworks in response to "big ideas" (p. 45).

Tavin and Anderson (2003) proposed a program of study for fifth grade students in which students investigated the influence of the Disney Corporation through examination of their representations of "gender, race, sexuality, ethnicity, and history" (p. 33). Tavin and Hausman (2004) described a program in which students investigated the issue of globalization. The authors qualified their age specifications, reporting that, "Although these projects were developed and implemented by graduate students, the ideas generated throughout their inquiry can be applied to K-12 practice" (p. 51). Ulbricht (2005) proposed working with elementary students in order to "prepare students to understand [visual culture's] objectives, motivations, and impacts" (p. 17). Vande Zande (2007) proposed studying designed objects such as chairs with grades, K-12, claiming that, "Creating an awareness of the influences that play on our thinking and on our decision making processes may guide us to make purposeful choices to improve the quality of our lives" (p. 42).

Freedman advised that elementary students need both, explicit instruction in formalism and exposure to visual culture techniques (K. Freedman, personal communication, March 27, 2009). She suggested that children need to learn criticism at an early age, explaining that students need to be taught narrative and critique skills before they begin to think that art is about learning how to draw realistically, which they usually do in the fifth and sixth grade (K. Freedman, Personal Communication, March 27, 2009).

Conclusion

The literature review described motivations for a move toward visual culture art education including a reaction to changes in art; an increased prevalence and influence of the visual in society; the relevance to students' interests provided by visual culture; cited problems with the formalist art education framework and the proposed solutions offered by a visual culture approach. The literature review identified several main propositions of visual culture art education: the move from formalism to conceptualism; an expansion of artifacts to include objects from popular culture and beyond; an increased role of critical inquiry, the basis of production on inquiry and reflection, and a democratic art education for all students. The literature review listed the proposed objects for study, along with the proposed strategies for studying them. The rationale for visual culture was presented according to literature concerning brain-based learning and best teaching practices. The literature review addressed the relevance and age appropriateness of visual culture to elementary students.

Negotiations

            The Department of Research, Evaluation, and Assessment for Memphis City Schools was contacted using the systems form entitled Memphis City Schools Research Proposal Form in order to gain permission to conduct two surveys with 54 third grade students and 56 fourth grade students (see Appendix A). A letter of approval was sent to the researcher and advisor, Dr. Catherine Wilson from Dr. John R. Barker, the Executive Director of MCS dated February 23, 2009 (See Appendix B).

Timeline

September, 2008-December, 2008

• Researched strategies to use in the art classroom
• Identified rationale for the inclusion of the visual arts in the current curriculum
• Identified visual culture strategies as a topic of study
• Began literature review of visual culture

January, 2009

• Began planning for action research project by reading Action Research: A Guide for the Teacher Researcher
• Continued literature review of visual culture
• Met with action research peers and mentor to discuss the progress of the project

February, 2009

• Developed an Area of Focus and Research Questions
• Developed Questionnaires and Surveys to be used in data collection process
• Submitted Research Proposal to the Memphis City Schools for approval
• Received written approval to conduct study in the classroom from John R. Barker, Executive Director of Research, Evaluation & Assessment.
• Continued literature review
• Met with action research peers and mentor to discuss the progress of the project

March, 2009

• Continued literature review
• Met with action research peers and mentor to discuss the progress of the project

• Developed lesson plans to implement visual culture in the classroom

April, 2009

• Continued literature review
• Met with action research peers and mentor to discuss the progress of the project
• Implemented lesson plans and collected data
• Completed data collection
• Completed data analysis and interpretation

Data Collection

            The teacher-researcher utilized four types of data collection throughout the process of the action research project. The sources included a review of the literature, observation notes from visual culture classroom lessons, student surveys, and evaluation of student work according to rubrics.

Data Sources

• Review of Related Literature: Nine months were spent reviewing current books and journals on best teaching practices, brain-based learning, and visual culture studies in relation to art education. A workshop on visual culture and arts advocacy was attended on the dates of March 26-28, 2009, a PAIDEIA Leadership Institute presentation at the Memphis College of Art, in which Dr. Kerry Freedman presented information regarding visual culture and art education.
• Observation of Visual Culture Lessons: Students were selected (54 third grade students and 56 fourth grade students) and taught visual culture lessons over a four-week period. The teacher-researcher gathered information by taking notes as he observed students' behavior in the classroom.
• Student Surveys: Students were selected (54 third grade students and 56 fourth grade students) and surveyed to determine any prior knowledge of visual culture artifacts used in the lessons. The students were surveyed to determine their interest in the visual culture artifacts, as well as their interest in the lesson and understanding of the lesson's objectives and content (see Appendices C, D, and E).

• Rubrics: Students and the teacher evaluated in class performance and products according to rubrics (see Appendices F and G).

Action Plan

Summary of Findings Research Questions	Recommended Action Targeted to Findings	Who is Responsible for the Action?	Who Needs to Be Consulted or Informed?	Who Will Monitor/ Collect Data?	Timeline	Resources
Research Question 1 Which visual culture strategies are most effective for elementary students?	Surveys   Observation   Review of Related Literature     Rubrics	Students   Teacher     Teacher       Teacher/ Students	Dr. John R. Barker, Executive Director of Research, Evaluation & Assessment   Students   Fellow teachers	Teacher Researcher	October 2008- April, 2009	Survey results, Observation notes, Review of Related Literature, Rubrics
Research Question 2 Are visual culture strategies more meaningful and engaging to students than traditional art education strategies	Surveys   Observation notes   Review of Related Literature     Rubrics	Students   Teacher     Teacher       Teacher/ Students	Dr. John R. Barker, Executive Director of Research, Evaluation & Assessment   Students   Fellow teachers	Teacher Researcher	October 2008- April, 2009	Survey results, Observation notes, Review of Related Literature, Rubrics
Research Question 3 Does prior knowledge of visual culture artifacts presented in class affect performance?	Surveys   Observation notes   Review of Related Literature     Rubrics	Students   Teacher     Teacher       Teacher/ Students	Dr. John R. Barker, Executive Director of Research, Evaluation & Assessment   Students   Fellow teachers	Teacher Researcher	October 2008- April, 2009	Survey results, Observation notes, Review of Related Literature, Rubrics

Data Analysis and Interpretation

            The data were analyzed and interpreted through a review of current literature related to visual culture art education, observation notes taken through a series of lessons on visual culture, student responses to several surveys on the visual culture lessons, and rubrics scored by students and the teacher. The teacher located numerous visual culture lessons through the review of the literature and identified a few to implement with three third-grade classes and three fourth-grade classes. Lessons were designed to integrate visual culture strategies along with content required by the curriculum. The teacher conducted an informal survey to identify relevant visual culture artifacts, asking students about their interests in television, cartoons, music, activities, and cereal. The teacher relied on the informal survey to construct lessons around students' suggested areas of interest.

Lesson One: Illusion of Depth

The first lesson incorporated a technique found through the literature review, in which the teacher played a video of student interest and paused the still frame for critique. The teacher showed parts of an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants through http://spongebob.nick.com/, called Opposite Day, and paused the episode, pointing out illusion of depth techniques. A laptop and digital projector were used to display the video on a white board at the front of the class. Many of the students were familiar with the SpongeBob SquarePants introduction and were excited by the sight of it. Many exclaimed, "Oooh!" then asked, "We're watching SpongeBob today?" The teacher introduced illusion of depth techniques using the still frame of the SpongeBob SquarePants episode and asked students to critique subsequent stills from the episode in the same manner. Observation notes were taken throughout the classes to record students' behavior during the lesson.

After critiquing the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames for illusion of depth techniques, the students were instructed to create an artwork of their own that incorporated the same techniques to produce an illusion of depth in their pictures. A rubric was then used to evaluate students' use of the illusion of depth techniques in their pictures. A rubric was used to assess student work (see Appendix F). Four sections of the classes participated in this visual culture lesson: 3-02, 3-03, 4-02, and 4-03. Two sections, 3-01 and 4-01, were given an alternate lesson that did not involve popular culture items. This lesson substituted fine art examples for the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames. With the exception of 3-02, all classes were given a survey (see Appendices C & D) to determine the students' interest in the lesson, their previous knowledge of the exemplars used to introduce the illusion of depth techniques, and the knowledge gleaned from the lesson presented. 

Raw data for the surveys were recorded (see Appendices C and D). When responding to the open-ended question asking, "What did you learn from today's lesson?" students' answers that included information about the illusion of depth were coded as "yes", and other answers, including those left blank, were coded as "no". Of those students who were taught the illusion of depth lesson using the fine art prints, 50% provided answers that were coded as "yes", while 73% of those students who were taught the lesson using the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames provided answers that were coded as "yes". In accordance with expectations, fewer of the students who participated in the fine art lesson reported having prior knowledge of the artifacts used in class as compared to their visual culture counterparts. Of those students who received instruction over the illusion of depth using fine art prints, 59% responded that they had seen the pictures used in class before the lesson, while 98% of the students who received instruction using the SpongeBob SquarePants reported having seen the cartoon characters used in class before the lesson. Of those students who received instruction using the fine art prints, 91% responded that they found the lesson interesting, as compared to 86% of the students who received instruction using the SpongeBob SpongePants still frames. Similarly, 95% of those students who received instruction using the fine arts prints responded that they liked the lesson, while 90% of those who received instruction using the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames responded that they liked the lesson. In comparing the numbers, it seemed as though there was a positive correlation between the familiarity with the artifacts used to teach the concepts and the demonstration of learning. There did not appear to be the same relationship between the students' interest or enjoyment of the lesson and their demonstration of learning. Both the fine art group and the visual culture group had similar rates of positive response to the questions over interest and enjoyment, but there was a 23% difference in their demonstration of learning through the survey.

Raw data for the illusion of depth rubric were examined (see Appendix F). Comparison of the rates of demonstrated techniques provided support for the idea that the visual culture strategy worked better for a demonstrated understanding of the concepts. The visual culture group demonstrated the techniques an average of 14% more than the fine art group. The visual culture group demonstrated the individual techniques at a rate of 6% more often for diminishing size and a rate of 26% more often for the use of a horizon line. The visual culture group demonstrated the use of overlapping and the placement of objects on the picture plane to create an illusion of depth at a higher rate of 12%, each. In interpreting the rubric data and the open-ended responses intended to measure learning, it appeared that this visual culture strategy was perhaps more engaging than the fine art lesson, despite the groups' parity in responses over their interest and enjoyment of the lesson. Problems with these measurements included the limited amount of time that the students were given to produce the drawings, the differences in the time given to each class for drawing, the difference in the number of students who participated in each type of lesson, and the differences in the amount of class periods devoted to the lesson. Only one visual culture section participated in a teacher-led drawing activity, while no other section received the same type of support. In one instance, a class that was designated as a fine art class received some instruction involving the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames, as well. At least one class that was designated as a visual culture class received fine art examples, as well. Responses to the open-ended questions about why students liked the lesson were listed below.

Lesson One: Illusion of Depth, Fine Art Lesson

Question #3: Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?

• "Yes: Because it was fun."
• "Yes: Because I learned a lot."
• "Yes: I like to look at pictures and learn."
• "Yes: I've never seen pictures like it."
• "Yes: Because you taught me how to draw."
• "Yes: Because it was fun to draw."

Lesson One: Illusion of Depth, Visual Culture Lesson

Question #4: Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?

• "Yes: It was fun."
• "Yes: I like SpongeBob."
• "Yes: Because it was fun to learn about new things."
• "Yes: Because we learned how to do the illusion of depth."
• "Yes: Because it was funny [the SpongeBob episode]."

Class 3-01

            This class was taught the illusion of depth lesson with fine art prints as exemplars instead using the SpongeBob SquarePants episode still frames. The teacher presented the illusion of depth techniques to the students using examples from the fine art prints. Students were then asked to walk around in small groups to different fine art print stations, and critique the art prints for the illusion of depth techniques used by the artists. Out of 18 students, six were observed to be off task in their discussions at the picture stations. The students were instructed to then draw a picture illustrating something that happened over spring break, using the illusion of depth techniques. The students only had four minutes to draw before their teacher picked them up at the end of class. Their drawings were evaluated for the illusion of depth techniques used. Out of 18 students, seven used a horizon line, seven used overlapping, seven used diminishing size, and eight used the placement of the objects on the picture plane to demonstrate the illusion of depth. Survey results were presented in Appendix C. Only six out of 15 students provided a response including information about the illusion of depth in response to the question, "What did you learn from today's lesson?" All but two students responded that they found the lesson interesting, and all but one answered that they liked the lesson.

Class 3-02

            This class reviewed the illusion of depth concepts and critiqued the SpongeBob SquarePants still frames as small groups. The students sounded as though they were giving appropriate answers at table groups. The students were given five minutes to draw pictures about their spring break experiences using the illusion of depth techniques. Of 16 students, 13 used a horizon line, eight used diminishing size, nine used overlapping, and eight used placement of objects on the picture plane to demonstrate the illusion of depth in their drawings. Though the class was not given a formal survey, the teacher asked for a show of hands at the end of class for the following questions. Of 16 students, 14 found the lesson interesting. Two did not. Three did not like television show, SpongeBob SquarePants.

Class 3-03

            The teacher introduced the concepts on the board: illusion of depth, overlapping, diminishing size, placement of objects on the picture plane, and use of a horizon line. The teacher defined the terms, giving examples. The teacher displayed a still from a SpongeBob SquarePants episode called "Opposite Day", and showed examples of illusion of depth techniques the artist used. The teacher then asked students, going straight down the role, for examples in another still frame of the same episode. Students seemed inattentive, sleepy, and unable to give examples. The teacher told students to talk in small groups, sharing examples of the illusion of depth techniques. The students were mostly quiet, sharing a few examples with each other. When the teacher asked for volunteers to give examples a few minutes later, six students frequently raised their hands, out of seventeen. Many of the answers given were vague: "That rock is covering up the ground." "That clam is covering up that other thing." Most of the answers referred to overlapping without giving the term overlapping. One student gave an example of diminishing size. Many of the other students looked bored, inattentive, and unengaged in the critique of spatial elements in the SpongeBob still frame. The teacher decided to end the critique without asking each student for an answer, as many of the other students were unengaged through this process of calling on one student at a time.

            The teacher switched tactics, demonstrating techniques on the board and asking the students to draw, illustrating the techniques. The teacher demonstrated on the board and told the students to draw themselves overlapping something or someone, as he had done. A review of the drawings after class identified seven out of 17 drawings that used overlapping. The teacher told the students to show that they were outside by drawing a horizon line. A review of the drawings after class identified 15 out of 17 drawings that used a horizon line. The teacher told the students to draw something toward the horizon line using diminishing size and placement of the object on the picture plane to make it appear far away. A review of the drawings after class identified nine out of 17 drawings that used diminishing size, and 12 that used placement of objects on the picture plane to show an illusion of depth.

Some points to consider in interpreting these data were raised by the teacher. Students were unfamiliar with the critique process. The class took place on the first day back from spring break, early in the morning. Students looked sleepy entering the room and their classroom teacher described them as comatose. The critique process left many students out while one student was asked to share. The students did much better with the hands-on drawing exercise than they did with critique. The students were asked to draw themselves and their experience. The students were better able to kinesthetically, visually and aurally experience the content when they drew, and only visually and aurally in the critique exercise. Students were only able to work on this teacher-led exercise for ten minutes before they ran out of time.

The survey results of this lesson were reviewed (see Appendix D). While 11 out of 15 students gave an example of the illusion of depth techniques as an answer for what they learned from the lesson, their teacher reported that one of the students yelled out the question, "How do you spell overlapping?" when the students were filling out their surveys. All of the responses counted as a correct answer used overlapping as a response. All of the students responded that they were familiar with each of the SpongeBob SquarePants characters and liked the show. All of the students responded that they liked the lesson and found it interesting. 

Class 4-01

            This section had sparse attendance with only seven students attending each of the class periods devoted to the illusion of depth techniques. The students in the first class period were introduced to the illusion of depth techniques and asked to identify techniques employed by the SpongeBob SquarePants still frame. In the next class period, the teacher presented the illusion of depth techniques using fine art prints as exemplars. Students pointed out examples as a class and then critiqued four art prints in pairs. Students then drew a picture about their spring break experiences and were directed to use the illusion of depth techniques. The students were excited throughout the class period. Many were off task. Their papers were evaluated after the class for their use of the illusion of depth techniques. Of seven students, five used diminishing size, six used a horizon line, four used overlapping, and seven used the placement of objects on the picture plane to produce an illusion of depth.

            Full results of the student survey were reviewed (see Appendix C). Out of 17 students, 14 provided an answer about the illusion of depth in response to the question on what the students learned from the lesson. All but two students responded that they liked the television show, and all but one student responded that they found the lesson interesting.

Class 4-02

            The first day of the illusion of depth lesson, there were technical difficulties with the Internet feed of the SpongeBob SquarePants episode. The teacher presented examples of the artist's use of the illusion of depth techniques using the frozen frame of the episode. When the video was again up and running, the students were asked to critique different frames for the illusion of depth techniques. They displayed a good grasp of overlapping, but an inadequate understanding of the other techniques. The next class period, the teacher led a review of the terms from the previous class. The class again critiqued scenes for techniques employed, with only three students unable to provide a correct example the first time. Students were instructed to employ the illusion of depth techniques on their drawings. The teacher got caught up demonstrating facial proportions to one student and many of the students were observed playing instead of working. Many of the students had begun a background the previous class and were unwilling, unmotivated, or unable to improve their drawings through the further use of the illusion of depth techniques.

            The next class period for these students occurred after their spring break. The teacher reviewed the illusion of depth techniques with the students using both fine art prints and the same SpongeBob SquarePants episode. The students were told to complete drawings about their spring break experiences, but many expressed an interest in drawing a SpongeBob picture. They were allowed to draw either the SpongeBob picture or a narrative about their spring break, but they were told to use all four of the illusion of depth techniques. Their drawings were evaluated after class. Out of 18 students, 13 included a horizon line in their picture, 10 included overlapping, 13 employed the objects placement of the picture plane, and nine used diminishing size to create an illusion of depth.

            The results of the student survey were reviewed (see Appendix D). All but one student reported familiarity with the television show. All but two of the students reported liking the television show. All but three students gave an answer about the illusion of depth for the question about what they learned from the lesson.

Class 4-03

            The teacher introduced the illusion of depth techniques to this class in the last five minutes of one class period. The next class period, the teacher asked the students to draw a picture of themselves. The teacher then reviewed the illusion of depth techniques with the students. When they were instructed to draw themselves overlapping something in the picture, they looked around wonderingly. The teacher critiqued a still frame of SpongeBob SquarePants to illustrate the technique. Students were asked to critique several different still frames in small groups. Students then drew on their papers to produce an illusion of depth. When the students were later asked to give examples of the illusion of depth techniques employed in the SpongeBob still frames, most were able to do so, but some were not. The teacher observed that many students were left uninvolved and inattentive during the process of asking individual students to point out examples of the illusion of depth techniques to the whole class. While the small group discussions seemed lively and on-task, the individual answers seemed sluggish for everyone. An evaluation of the students' drawings after the class period identified their uses of the illusion of depth techniques. Out of 17 students, 12 used the horizon line appropriately, 11 utilized the diminishing size technique, 15 used overlapping, and 13 used the placement of objects on the picture plane to create an illusion of depth.

            The results of the student survey were reviewed (see Appendix D). All students reported familiarity with SpongeBob SquarePants. All but three students reported an interest in the show. Out of 15 students, 10 gave an example of the illusion of depth for the question about what they learned from the lesson. 

Lesson Two: Critique of Cereal Boxes

All sections of classes were presented with the following series of visual culture lessons. The students analyzed cereal boxes through a visual culture critical analysis technique identified through the review of the literature. The students were provided a list of questions to use in analyzing their box as a small group. The list of questions was based primarily on a denotation and connotation framework offered by Barrett (2003), but incorporated other questions to promote investigation to viewing and production contexts, a framework offered by Freedman (2003b). Students were to list the denotations of the cereal box, what they saw, and tell what these things reminded them of, the connotations. (See Appendix H for a complete list of the questions.) One section, 3-03, received a lengthened list of questions (See Appendix I). This class was the first to participate in the lesson and their reaction to the lesson prompted the teacher to revise it to make it easier for the students.

 In the next lesson, the teacher provided background information on cereal box design and advertising, using the following websites.

• http://www.theimaginaryworld.com/cbarch.html
• http://www.painstick.com/cereal_box_gallery.htm
• http://pbskids.org/dontbuyit/advertisingtricks/cerealbox_flash.html
• http://www.lavasurfer.com/cereal-guide.html

The students viewed historical cereal boxes and identified the evolution of design for different cereals. They received background information on the intent of designers and advertisers to appeal to children through their use of exiting names, color, characters, prizes, and descriptive language. The students were prompted to think of the relationship between the packaging, advertising, and the appeal of the cereal, itself. Each class then designed a cereal box as a group using the web-based program at:               

• http://pbskids.org/dontbuyit/advertisingtricks/cerealbox_flash.html.

The students were given a choice for the next lesson. Both choices were based on the suggestions of visual culture advocates located in the literature review. The first choice involved drawing a narrative that told a story about a cereal box of their choice. The second choice involved the design of an original cereal box. The students unanimously chose to design their own cereal box. The teacher helped the classes review the techniques employed by advertisers and designers. The students were told to design a cereal box that would appeal to young children; come up with an original name that was exciting, short, and easy to remember; use an original character that would appeal to young children; use descriptive language that would appeal to young children and their parents; advertise a prize on the box, if they chose; use color to attract the attention of their possible consumers.

The next class involved a peer-critique, as suggested by Freedman (2003b). The teacher provided students with a rubric that they were to use in determining strengths of their designs and identifying areas for improvement. A rubric was utilized for assessment (see Appendix G). Students worked in small groups to peer-evaluate their projects. Since some of the students had been absent the previous class, they were allowed to make their designs during this class period. The teacher evaluated all projects according to the rubric at the end of the class period.

In the next class period, the students created improvements to their original designs in light of the peer and teacher feedback received on their rubrics. Many produced second designs that improved on their original concept. Several students were unhappy that they had to create another design, as they felt that their first design was good enough. Most of the students were unfinished at the end of the class period, and overwhelmingly the classes voted to continue work on their new designs until they finished them. All of the classes were given surveys to determine their interest in the lesson, their previous knowledge of the exemplars used in class, and the learning gleaned from the lessons (see Appendix E).

The data were compared in order to determine the appropriateness and effectiveness of these different visual culture strategies with these students. The learning that these lessons were to impart was not as easy to gauge as the illusion of depth lessons. While learning was harder to measure, these visual culture strategies provided students with a well-rounded range of art activities. Students were provided with opportunities to decode the hidden messages of the cereal boxes in the critical inquiry exercise. They were given opportunities to understand production contexts better through the web-based cereal box design and background information provided throughout the lesson. They were allowed an opportunity to produce artwork related to their interests and understanding of production and viewing contexts. Finally students were given the opportunity to provide and receive feedback on their projects and revise them according to their understandings of this exercise. Students were able to participate in processes to investigate the impact of design on their lives and choices, and opportunities to improve cognitive and technical skills.

Many of the exercises included in this lesson were hard for the students because they had not participated in these types of activities before. They needed to be taught how to analyze images, how to list connotations and denotations, and the mechanics of how to share these in small groups and whole-class discussions. Students had to learn how to peer-evaluate, as well. All of these worthwhile activities were introduced because of the teacher's attempt to include visual culture strategies. Previous lessons for the classes had involved only production activities. The descriptions of each section's participation in the lessons were listed below. The descriptions included data from observation notes, tallies of rubrics, and tallies of survey information.

Data from Cereal Box Lessons Surveys

            The cereal box lessons included several different visual culture activities: identification of popular culture items of students' interest; critical analysis of popular culture artifacts; exploration of viewing contexts in relation to students' experiences; receiving background information on production contexts of advertising and design artifacts; student artwork produced in response to critical inquiry processes and contextual information; and peer critique. All of the sections participated in each of these activities and were given a survey at the end of the final lessons. Questions included students' familiarity with the cereal boxes used in the critical inquiry exercises, students' preference for the cereals used in this exercise, students' overall interest in the lesson, and their reported enjoyment and learning. Raw data were reported in Appendix E. Of the students who took the survey, 97% reported that they had seen at least one of the cereal boxes used in the critical inquiry exercise before they were used in the class activity, and 100% of the students reported that they liked at least one of the cereals. Of the students who participated in the survey, 81% responded that the lessons were interesting, and 86% of the students responded that they liked the lesson. According to the data, most the students found the visual culture lessons interesting, and they liked them. Responses to the open-ended question, "What did you learn from today's lesson?" varied, as did the open-ended section of the question, "Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?" Did the learning move beyond technical skill acquisition? The lessons were designed to do so. Responses to the open-ended questions over why they liked the lesson and what they learned from the lesson were reported below.

Question #4: Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?

• "Yes: Because it involves cereal, and I love cereal."
• "Yes: Cereals are very good."
• "Yes: Because I love to name a fake cereal."
• "Yes: Because I like talking about cereal and making our own cereal."
• "Yes: I like art, and I like cereal."
• "Yes: Because I love cereal and I always wanted to make a cereal box, even though I already have."
• "Yes: It was fun when you draw a cereal box with your own character and making up your own cereal box name."
• "Yes: I love cereal!"
• "Yes: Because it is talking about my favorite cereals."
• "Yes: Because I like designing stuff on my own."
• "Yes: Because I enjoyed drawing the cereal box stuff. I may want to sell cereal some day and get to design a real one."
• "Yes: It was amazing. I have never made a cereal box in my life."
• "Yes: It was fun to make cereal boxes."
• "Yes: Because it was an interesting thing."
• "Yes: Because [we thought] about something [we] like to do."
• "Yes: Because I like flakes, crunch cereal."
• "Yes: Because we learned different things."
• "Yes: Because I like drawing and it's fun. And I like coloring."
• "Yes: I love cereal."
• "Yes: Because we learned how to make cereal boxes."
• "Yes: Because we are drawing cereals."
• "Yes: Because I like the cereal and because I like the cereal cash card."
• "Yes: I like making the cereal boxes up."
• "Yes: Because it's easy."
• "Yes and No: I kind of liked it, then at some point, I didn't."
• "No: Because it was not interesting."
• "No: I didn't because cereal doesn't interest me that much."
• "No: Because when we [are] in art, [the teacher takes] most of our time by talking. But I love art."
• "No: We had to make two after all the hard work we did on the first one."

Question #7: What did you learn from today's lesson?

• "Cereal boxes are all different."
• "The different colors, how to make a cereal box, and how to make a character"
• "There [are] all different kinds of cereal, how to make our own cereal, and knowing how to decorate it."
• "Nothing. I told [the teacher] last time I did this at my old school."
• "How to draw a cereal box, draw your own name for the cereal box, and design your character"
• "How to look at cereal boxes and see what it makes you think of; and I loved the part when we made our own cereal boxes."
• "Designing cereal on our own and seeing how interesting they are"
• "How to use space, size, and color to make things"
• "How to sell boxes to make people buy our cereal"
• "About how people feel about different cereals"
• "Making a cereal box, making a name, and drawing a picture"
• "How to make cereal boxes, and how to make them perfect"
• "I learned the cereal box is not easy."
• "About cereal and how to make our own cereal [box]"
• "Anybody could make cereal boxes."
• "I learned all the certain things you need to put on your cereal box design before you can even sell it."
• "How to make a cereal box- and the color feelings."
• "How to shorten the title"
• "To see what is on the cereal boxes"
• "Do not use some other cereal's name."
• "How to make a project interesting to buy."
• "How to make a cereal box."
• "That it is fun to make your own cereal boxes and it is a lot of work"
• "How to design a cereal box"
• "How to create a cereal box"
• "How to draw a cereal box"
• "How to decorate boxes"
• "How to design"
• "How to do art"
• "A lot about cereals"
• "A lot of stuff about cereals"
• "I learned about the best thing I like to eat."

Class 3-01

            The students worked in pairs to determine the denotations of the cereal boxes. Most were on task. A few finished early and sat quietly waiting for the rest to finish. The teacher observed inattention from those not sharing during the whole group discussion. The students were instructed to think of the connotations. The students were on task, but many needed practice with the concept of denotations and connotations, due to their lack of experience using the technique. The students were very attentive during the web-based design of the cereal box at the end of class. The next class was devoted entirely to the background information found on the Internet and the web-based design of another cereal box. While the students were very excited, some appeared to be off task. All students chose to make their own cereal box design when given the choice of assignments. The students were excited and on task during the class period.

            Only 11 students participated in critique. Five students had not yet made their own cereal box design, since they had been absent the previous class. They made their cereal box design, while the rest of the students critiqued their designs in small groups. The critique seemed to run smoothly for the students' first time, though some of students gave themselves scores instead of listening to the group, and many students were less than critical, marking great for qualities that obviously needed improvement. The teacher evaluated all students' projects prior to the beginning of the next class. Survey results for the cereal box lessons were reviewed (see Appendix E). Out of 16 students, 14 reported familiarity with the cereal boxes used in the critical analysis lesson, and 14 reported that they liked the lesson.

Class 3-02

            The first lesson on connotations and denotations, the teacher introduced the cereal boxes to the class by lining them up on a table. Students were organized into pairs. They listed what they saw on the box design. The teacher led a class discussion, asking students to share their observations. The pairs shared their connotations with each other and the whole class. One student remarked that the Trix box design reminded him of Easter, with the Trix rabbit reminding him of the Easter bunny and the cereal of different colors reminding him of Easter eggs. The box's advertisement that every one in ten wins a prize reminded him of winning. The teacher led the students through the web-based cereal box design at the end of class. The following class period, this section created another web-based cereal box design. Several students began the class off task, and by the end of the period, many were disruptive and off task.

In a review of the design criteria the following class period, the students remembered the background information about the prize, the color of the boxes, and the use of characters. Students began to design their own box. Many wanted help naming their cereal. Only three or four students needed reminders to get back on task. None of the students finished their design in the allotted time. Only two or three could have been considered near completion. They were given time the following class period to peer-evaluate, a structure advocated by Freedman (2003b). Only nine students participated in the peer critiques. Two students who had not yet drawn a design did so during this class period. Several other students were absent. The teacher observed numerous non-cooperative group members and several students working by themselves. Survey results for the cereal lessons were reviewed (see Appendix E). All 15 students reported being familiar with the cereals used in the critical analysis lesson, and nine reported that the lesson was interesting.

Class 3-03

            The teacher provided the students with a context for the cereal box critical analysis activity through the web-based cereal box design activity and the progression of Tony the Tiger and the Trix bunny on historical cereal boxes. The students then discussed the questions provided (see Appendix I). The students were excited, but seemed confused. They did not appear to understand what the questions were asking. The students wanted to write everything down instead of discussing things. When asked about the appropriateness of the activity with third graders, their classroom teacher suggested that the questions be cut in half and that the students be led through each question.

            The next class period, the teacher led the students through the web-based cereal box design activity. The class created a box as a group by voting on the different choices offered by the computer program. The teacher provided background information on why cereal box designers and advertisers make certain choices by reading the information provided on the website. The teacher analyzed the exemplar boxes: Frosted Flakes, Cinnamon Toast Crunch, Cap'n Crunch, Corn Pops, and Trix for their use of color, fantasy characters, names, the prizes offered, and the additional descriptive phrases or slogans. The students voted on the fixed choices for box color, character, slogans, and prizes. They then suggested names for the cereal. The teacher wrote their suggestions on the board, and the students voted on the name by writing their choice on a ballot. The results were tallied. The students acted excited, attentive, and on task. The students were then given the choice of either drawing a narrative including the box of cereal or design an original cereal box. All students chose to design the cereal box. The students were excited and on task, but needed technical encouragement.

            Results of the student survey were reviewed (see Appendix E). All 15 students reported familiarity with the cereals used in the critical analysis exercise. All but two of the students answered that they found the lessons interesting. All but one of the students responded that they liked the lessons.

Class 4-01

            There was no data for this section on the critical analysis lesson or the web-based cereal box design. During the students' design of their original cereal box, the teacher reported that seven of the 12 students were off task. There were only eight students who participated in the peer critique. Two of them were off task. Survey results for the cereal lessons were reviewed (see Appendix E). All 11 students surveyed reported familiarity with the cereal boxes used in the critical analysis lesson. Out of the 11 students, nine found the cereal lessons interesting.

Class 4-02

            The first lesson involved the critical analysis of the cereal box exemplars. Pairs and tables of students talked about what they saw on the cereal box, listing the denotations. Then they shared them with the whole group. The pairs and tables then identified the connotations and shared them with the whole class. The talked about what the words, colors, and pictures reminded them of or made them think about. In discussing the Trix box, the following connotations were reported: Easter eggs, the Easter bunny, a grandmother winning money at the casino, and balloons. In discussing the Cinnamon Toast Crunch box, students reported the following connotations: chocolate ice cream and a grandfather. In discussing the Frosted Flakes box, students reported the following connotations: the zoo, Uncle Tony, and making stuff. In discussing the Corn Pops box, students reported the following connotations: corn, Mickey Mouse, and taking pictures. Some of the students were off task in other groups while each group was sharing with the whole class. The teacher led the students through the web-based cereal box design at the end of the class.

            The following class period, the teacher led the students in a short discussion comparing and contrasting children's cereals and adults' cereals. This section again participated in the web-based cereal box design. They received background information on advertisers and cereal box designers as provided by the website. Many students were excited throughout the activity. It was hard to tell if they were on task. Many were not following directions and talking when they were asked to be quiet. All students chose to design an original cereal box for their project over the narrative activity. There was no data for the students involved in the production of their own cereal box design. The following class, the students were directed to peer-assess each other's work using a rubric (see Appendix G). The teacher observed some students not working. The students had a hard time talking as groups about each other's work. Many wanted to self-evaluate. Some students got upset and marked low scores on the other students' rubrics. Many had a hard time differentiating the categories: short name, instead of good name, for instance (see Appendix G). The survey results for the cereal lessons were reviewed (see Appendix E). Out of 19 students, 18 reported familiarity with the cereals used in the critical analysis activity, and 16 reported that they found the cereal lessons interesting.

Class 4-03

            During the critical analysis lesson, the students talked about what they saw on their boxes. The teacher presented the web-based cereal box activity and background information on advertisers and designers. The teacher presented the historical progression of Trix box designs.

The students were instructed to finish the critique of their cereal boxes. The students were asked, "What did you learn that is on cereal boxes that you didn't know was on there before?" The students responded in a class discussion. The students were excited and found it hard to share the box between more than two people. Many students were off task in their paired discussions. The following class period, nine students were in class for the web-based cereal box design. The teacher presented the information and choices offered by the website. The teacher linked the information provided by the website to the exemplar boxes: Frosted Flakes, Corn Pops, Cinnamon Toast Crunch, Cap'n Crunch, and Trix. The students voted on the fixed choices. They were on task, excited, and motivated. Students proposed names, which the teacher wrote on the board. The students voted for their favorite name by ballot. After the web-based cereal box design activity, the students were allowed to choose their next activity. All students chose the cereal box design activity over the cereal box narrative activity. The students were excited and engaged in beginning their original cereal box designs.

            Survey results for the cereal box lessons were then reviewed (see Appendix E). Out of 19 students, 18 were familiar with the cereals used in the critical analysis activity. All students found the lessons interesting. 

Conclusion

In light of the data provided through the review of the literature, observation notes, survey results, and rubrics, the visual culture strategies that were most effective for elementary students were the ones that provided the students with opportunities to study artifacts of their interests, that allowed students diverse learning opportunities, and connected concepts to real-world examples. It appeared that visual culture strategies were more meaningful and engaging to students than traditional art education strategies, though the procedures for the different learning activities had to be taught and practiced. Prior knowledge of visual culture artifacts presented in class may have affected student performance. The relevance of the artifact to the student's lives may have caused the students to become more excited and relate concepts to previous knowledge easier. It became evident through review of the literature, analysis of the data provided through the rubrics and surveys, and observation of students in class, that the students would best benefit from integrated emphasis on technical and conceptual skill acquisition, and from an integrated approach involving everyday artifacts of interest and objects from fine art.

Final Thoughts

            The research conducted throughout this project has provided valuable lessons. While it is true that most students will not be artists, it is equally true that they deserve a relevant art education. Through a search for relevant art education strategies, a number of useful tools to improve art teaching were discovered. The process of action research and the value of reflective practice were assimilated. The incorporation of more diverse learning experiences into the classroom: design activities, peer-critique, analysis of artifacts in terms of contexts of viewing and production, utilization of technology in new ways, and incorporation of students' interests in the planning of lessons were determined. Through the implementation of more diverse learning activities, and a commitment to a focus on meaning making, as well as art production, it became evident that students were provided with valuable experiences.

            The findings of this action research project suggest a need for continued study in the relevance of visual culture strategies to elementary students. Numerous visual culture strategies were identified to try in the classroom, in addition to those already implemented. The research suggested that students' knowledge of the artifacts used in class helped them internalize the concepts presented. Initially the intent was to incorporate artifacts that related to students' interests and everyday experiences, and on widening their range of experiences through the presentation of fine art examples in the same lessons. The research has shown that the media experiences and technical skill acquisition can be accompanied by the exploration of concepts relevant to students' lives. Research will be conducted to uncover relevant concepts and approaches in art education. The continued reflective actions started in this project will be carried on in order to determine the best teaching practices for classroom use.

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Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

 Illusion of Depth, Fine Art Survey Questions and Tabulated Responses

Had you seen any of these pictures that we studied in class in class before today? Which ones? 13 yes (59%), 9 no (41%)

Was this lesson interesting to you? 20 yes (91%), 2 no (9%)

Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?  21 yes (95%), 1 no (5%)

What did you learn from today's lesson? (Yes indicates the student responded with an answer about an illusion of depth technique. No indicates the student responded with another answer.)                    11 yes (50%), 11 no (50%)

Class 3-01 3-01 4-01 401 Total Total Answer Y N Y N Y N Question #1 11 4 2 5 13 9 Question #2 13 2 7 0 20 2 Question #3 14 1 7 0 21 1 Question #4 6 9 5 2 11 11 Table 1:  Raw numbers of responses to Survey 1, Illusion of Depth, Fine Art Prints

 Appendix D

Had you seen any of these television or cartoon characters used in class before today? 47 yes (98%), 1 no (2%)	Yes	No
Which ones had you seen?   SpongeBob SquarePants 47 (98%) Squidward                         29 (60%) Patrick                               28 (58%)
Was this lesson interesting to you? 42 yes (86%), 7 no (14%)	Yes	No
Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?  43 yes (90%), 5 no (10%)	Yes	No
Do you like the television show, SpongeBob SquarePants?             42 yes (89%), 5 (11%) no	Yes	No
Class 3-03 3-03 4-02 4-02 4-03 4-03 Total Total Answer Y N Y N Y N Y N Question #1 15 0 17 1 15 0 47 1 Question #2 15A, 15B, 15C   17A, 12B, 12C   15A, 2B, 1C   47A, 29B, 28C    Question #3 15 0 17 1 10 6 42 7 Question #4 15 0 14 4 14 1 43 5 Question #5 14 0 15 2 13 3 42 5 Question #6 11 4 14 3 10 5 35 13 What did you learn from today's lesson? (Yes indicates the student responded with an answer about an illusion of depth technique. No indicates the student responded with another answer.)                    35 yes (73%), 13 no (27%)
Table 2:  Raw numbers of responses to Survey 1, Illusion of Depth, Visual Culture

Illusion of Depth, Visual Culture Survey Questions and Tabulated Responses

Appendix E:

Had you seen any of these cereal boxes used in class before today?  91 Y (97%), 3 N (3%)

Which ones had you seen?              Cinnamon Toast Crunch        66 (70%) Frosted Flakes                        60 (64%) Trix                                          61 (65%) Corn Pops                               50 (53%)

Was this lesson interesting to you?   76 Y (81%), 18 N (19%)

Did you like this lesson? Why or why not?  79 Y (86%), 13 N (14%)

Do you like any of these cereals?    94 Y (100%) Which do you like? Cinnamon Toast Crunch 57 (61%) Frosted Flakes                 52 (55%) Trix                                   56 (60%) Corn Pops                        31 (33%)

What did you learn from today's lesson?

Class 3-01 3-01 3-02 3-02 3-03 3-03 4-01 4-01 4-02 4-02 4-03 4-03 Total Total Answer Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Question #1 14 2 15 0 15 0 11 0 18 1 18 0 91 3 Question #2 4A 3B 4C 2D   8A 3B 4C 5D   13A 14B 13C 10D   8A 9B 8C 6D   18A 17B 16C 15D   15A 14B 16C 12D   66A 60B 61C 50D    Question #3 12 5 9 6 12 2 9 2 16 3 18 0 76 18 Question #4 14 1 9 5 14 1 9 2 16 3 17 1 79 13 Question #5 16 0 15 0 15 0 11 0 19 0 18 0 94 0 Question #6 5A 4B 8C 0D   6A 6B 6C 2D   14A 14B 12C 10D   5A 8B 6C 6D   17A 11B 14C 9D   10A 9B 10C 4D   57A 52B 56C 31D

Cereal Box Survey Data

Table 3:  Raw numbers of responses to Survey 2, Cereal Box Lessons

Appendix F

Illusion of Depth Rubric Data

Class	3-02	3-02	3-03	3-03	4-02	4-02	4-03	4-03	Total Visual culture	Total Visual culture
Demonstrated?	Y	N	Y	N	Y	N	Y	N	Y	N
Diminishing Size	8	8	9	8	9	9	11	6	37	31
Horizon Line	13	3	15	2	13	5	12	5	53	15
Overlapping	9	7	7	10	10	8	15	2	41	27
Placement of Objects on the Picture Plane	8	8	12	5	13	5	13	4	46	22

Table 4: Raw numbers of Demonstrated Illusion of Depth techniques for Visual Culture Lesson

Class	3-01***	3-01***	4-01***	4-01***	Total Fine art ***	Total Fine art ***
Demonstrated?	Y	N	Y	N	Y	N
Diminishing Size	7	11	5	2	12	13
Horizon Line	7	11	6	1	13	12
Overlapping	8	10	4	3	12	13
Placement of Objects on the Picture Plane	7	11	7	0	14	11

Table 5:  Raw Numbers of Demonstrated Illusion of Depth techniques for Fine Arts Lesson

Lesson Type	Total Visual Culture	Total Fine art
Demonstrated?	Y	Y
Diminishing Size	54%	48%
Horizon Line	78%	52%
Overlapping	60%	48%
Placement of Objects on the Picture Plane	68%	56%

Table 6: Comparison of Rubric Data

Appendix G

Illusion of Depth Survey Data Comparison by Lesson Type

Lesson Type	Visual Culture	Fine art
Answer	Y	Y
Responded that they were familiar with the imagery used in class.	98%	59%
Responded that they thought the lesson was interesting.	86%	91%
Responded that they liked the lesson.	90%	95%
Demonstrated learning objective in answer.	68%	50%

Table 7:  Comparison of Survey Response Frequency

Appendix H

 Cereal Box Design Rubric

Student name ______________                                             Section_____________

Group members_______________

                          _______________

                          _______________

                                                      Students                                      Teacher

	Great	OK	Needs Improvement	Great	OK	Needs Improvement
Cereal Name: short
Cereal Name: easy to remember
Cereal Name: exciting
Character
Descriptive language makes me want to buy this cereal
Box is colorful
Box color is attractive
Overall neatness
Overall interesting
Overall complete

Appendix I

Questions for Critical Inquiry (3-01, 3-02, 4-01, 4-02, 4-03)

• 1. What do you see on the box? Talk about everything with your partner (colors, words, pictures, etc.)
• 2. What kinds of pictures do you see?
• 3. What do these pictures remind you of? What do they make you think about?
• 4. What kinds of words do you see?
• 5. What do the words remind you of? What do the words make you think about?
• 6. Why do you think the artist made this cereal box like this?
• 7. Who do you think made this box?
• 8. Where do you think it was made?
• 9. How does this box compare to other cereal boxes?

Appendix J

Questions for Critical Inquiry (3-03)

• 1. What do you see on the box? List everything.
• 2. What do the pictures remind you of? What do they make you think about?
• 3. What words do you see?
• 4. What do they remind you of?
• 5. Have you seen these types of pictures anywhere before? Where?
• 6. Why do you think the artist used these colors?
• 7. Why do you think the artist used these types of pictures?
• 8. Could the artist have used other types of pictures? Why or why not?
• 9. How does this box relate to what is inside it?
• 10. How is this box like boxes of other cereals?
• 11. How is this box different from other cereal boxes?
• 12. How is this box like the boxes of this brand of cereal from history?
• 13. How is this box different from the boxes of this brand of cereal from history?
• 14. Has the design of the box changed over time? Why or why not?
• 15. Do you think this cereal was made for young people, old people, or all people? How can you tell?
• 16. Why does this cereal come in a box like this?
• 17. Who do you think made this box?
• 18. Where do you think it was made?
• 19. How do you think it was made?